The Crisis of The Modern World (1927/ 2007)

This text is a non-fiction piece of work that explores the root causes of the problems in the modern world and some of the consequences of this development. The original was written in French by René Guénon and has been beautifully rendered into English by Arthur Osborne. I read an edition published by Indica Books in 2007, while the original French was published in 1927. I just wanted to post a few thoughts on the great work, without being too lengthy or repeating the actual contents of the book.

This book is short, at a mere 142 pages, but it is undeniably rich and informative. I must praise the translator in having been able to eloquently transpose rather complex thoughts and explanations into an English that was clear, easy to read, concise and enjoyable; it was a fluid experience and the writing style engaged me just as much as the content.

I must say that this book has come as a breath of fresh air. It is valuable and relevant to us in so many ways because, despite its original publication date, it discusses issues that are very much at the heart of what we are facing in our present day society. The chaos and disequilibrium that we are experiencing in our epoch have been brewing for some time, some centuries even, and so this piece of work comes to clarify what the problem is and remove a good few illusions we have come to accept or follow. Guénon challenges many of the false ideas we are fed under the guise of progression and development and explains exactly why they are harmful to us and why they are being exploited in the first place.

Guénon, while discussing the problems the West is facing, uses the East as a frame of reference and thus we not only see natural deviations from the West's own tradition but also from the tradition of the rest of the world. What I really value in this book is its frankness and its attachment to the truth. Guénon deconstructs many core pillars of this modern, material society such as philosophy, the contemporary approach to the natural sciences, politics and why it is designed to fail, the inadequacy of democracy and even the rise of materialism, indulgence in sport and the engagement with the East, making reference to colonisation.

Having already done a bit of background reading, many of the foundations to understand some of the core concepts had already been lain. Without this, it may well have been a bit more difficult to comprehend what Guénon was referring to when making certain references. Nonetheless, the ideas shared in this piece are well explained and given with plenty of examples where necessary, which facilitates the whole reading process.

I found this to be an enriching and enjoyable book which definitely ought to be read by those concerned by the chaos of our times and hope to understand it to hopefully thus remedy it to a degree. It is an important book to get a glimpse into the importance of spirituality and metaphysics on a global scale.

The Secret of Shakespeare (1996)

I finished reading Martin Lings' The Secret of Shakespeare: His Greatest Plays Seen in the Light of Sacred Art this afternoon. I thought I'd better blog about it as soon as I can otherwise a month will pass by and I'll still not have gotten round to it. It has been a refreshing read, as Lings often is. I'll list the plays discussed in the text and then give you a brief idea what the book covers, without any spoilers (hopefully). I read the third edition of the book, which has been revised and enlarged, with a foreword by H.R.H. The Prince of Wales published by Quinta Essentia in 1996.

After the foreword and the preface, the book begins with an explanation of sacred art and then moves onto Shakespeare's outlook. From this point onwards Lings focuses on a series of plays individually which are generally in chronological order. The plays are as follows: Henry IV, Hamlet, Othello, Measure for Measure, Macbeth, King Lear, Anthony and Cleopatra, Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale and The Tempest. The final two chapters are 'Notes on Performance and Production' and 'The Secret'. He focuses on the plays of Shakespeare's maturity, and thus the later plays in his writing career, making brief references to earlier works.

Firstly I'd like to comment on Lings' style. His writing is so concise and precise yet so eloquent that it is always a pleasure to read, and sometimes requires rereading so that you can capture the depth of what he has just described. I felt this especially when reading his book Symbol and Archetype and this eloquence has come through here too. I often find myself rereading sentences not always for meaning but because they have been so beautifully constructed. This enhances the reading experience hundredfold and I find I am sat before a wise man who is trying to open our hearts up to fulfil our potential. There is something refreshing and revitalising in his words that not many academic works can offer.

Lings discusses the role and value of spirituality in art and how this is part of what makes it timeless. This is why we keep coming back to certain great works of art, like Shakespeare. He beautifully explains the levels of interpretation and meaning to make sense of the works on various planes. Some of the symbolism Lings clarifies for modern readers is that of marriage, suicide and revenge. He describes how Shakespeare artfully represents suicide and revenge, utterly unchristian acts, in a way that the audience recognise the nobility of the acts in his plays and even sanction them. In bringing the sacred interpretation into light Lings consistently explains the journey of the soul through purgatory and towards heaven. He also distinguishes between alchemy and mysticism, of which there are elements in the plays.

Plays are written to be performed and not only read, and thus Lings considers the implications of producing these plays to a modern audience and to what extent directors ought to deviate from Shakespeare's own productions and why. The risk of an incomplete interpretation of the play could result in a poor production and thus take away from some of the depth intended. He also recognises that the modern audience does not have the same worldview as the audience of Shakespeare's time, which not only affects their interpretation and understanding of the play, but poses a challenge for directors who then have new expectations and pressures on them. Lings' advice is sincere and aims to maintain authenticity so that one can enjoy the intended magic of the original plays without obscure and inaccurate adaptations to cater to superficial tastes.

I haven't elaborated on the finer details and content of the text because I would not be able to do the great author justice; he has crafted his book in a way that I would not want to meddle with because I would be guilty distortion at worst and clumsiness at best. Many of the plays discussed in the book I have previously read or studied through my academic career. However, the few that I hadn't read meant that it was more difficult to follow the analysis and interpretation because, quite simply, I didn't know the story. For this reason, I would suggest you read the plays before reading this interpretation, but read this book before jumping to wild conclusions in order to avoid misunderstanding a significant poetical device. I'm glad I've had Lings' insight into Shakespeare's plays because I had been unable to appreciate Shakespeare very much through a less convincing approach to his work, rendering it somewhat unimportant and now I can re-read the plays with a renewed interest. I would say it has allowed me to take a fresh look at Shakespeare's works.

Mrs Dalloway (1925/ 2000)

I've been meaning to post about Mrs Dalloway for a while but my internet connection wasn't co-operating and then life happened. I've finally sat down to catch up on some bits and bobs, and this is one of them.

The edition that I read this time was the Oxford World Classics Kindle edition, published in 2000 by the Oxford University Press. I would highly recommend this edition because of the essays that come before the novel are insightful and supplement the reading of the text. The explanatory notes are also useful though somewhat distracting sometimes, as they largely map out the locations in London. I have previously read Mrs Dalloway before, about three years ago, and so already had an idea of the general style and content. The essays were helpful in that they picked out relevant details and elaborated on their relevance individually (according to the perspective chosen by the essay writer), where in the novel themselves there are so many elements coming together at once that it can seem somewhat overwhelming. I'll list some of the main themes in the novel and elaborate on a few of them, then make a few remarks on the style before giving a few of my final thoughts.

The colonialism of India is a recurrent part of the novel and reflects a facet to British life and identity. It is somewhat an extension of Britain, as the colonisers based in India are considered 'Indians', almost replacing the native people's existence and reducing them to 'coolies' and workers. Racism is thus an underlying sub-theme where there is a notion of white superiority and the inferiority of other ethnicities. Mrs Bruton's idea of sending British citizens to Canada to spread the colony further and protect the white race and high blood underlines the sense of superiority amongst the white British population, especially in upper class circles. This presumed superiority of the white race, especially of a certain class and education with a particular emphasis on their physicality, introduces a theme of eugenics, which is also discussed in one of the preceding essays.

Typical of the British class system, there is a considerable social structure at play in the novel highlighting the dynamics between social classes and the nature of a hierarchical society. This is then developed further into the question of social appearances and social expectations. This is most clearly demonstrated through the characters of Mrs Kilman and Ellie Henderson although these are not the only significant instances of social class, as we also notice this within the medical profession and from the people in the parks and streets.

Septimus, Clarissa Dalloway's counterpart, is most obviously a patient with a case of, what we call today, post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a form of mental illness. The insight into his view and experience of the world not only provides another reality but also brings into question how we define sanity and insanity. The treatment and taboos of mental illness are put in contrast to the doctors' behaviour and respected statuses despite questionable diagnoses. This brings the medical practice under scrutiny as the doctors appear more deluded than the patient himself, while he is no doubt suffering. Clarissa Dalloway is also a patient of a weak disposition, indicating some sort of mental anxiety. Although it is not quite clear what she suffers from, she is concerned with how she is perceived in society even if in her home she is treated like an invalid in some ways (i.e. isolated bed in the attic).

Unrequited love is a theme that we're constantly reminded of through the character of Peter Walsh. His life appears to be defined by it yet he actively lives in a fashion that wants to escape it; however it is imprinted into his heart and memory so that he never really is free from his first love. Peter Walsh isn't the only one to love in the novel, as Richard Dalloway feels he loves Clarissa, his wife, too despite not being able to say it in so many words. Woolf expands the theme of romantic love to same-sex love and passion to include the relationship between Sally Seton and Clarissa Dalloway. Woolf appears to be exploring the nature of love and desire in relation to social constraints and limitations, as Clarissa also chooses to marry Richard for social stability and status over a less 'reasoned' match.

Politics is a running theme throughout the novel, as Richard is a member of the Conservative party. Woolf puts the Conservative ideals and politics in opposition to more liberal values through characters like Peter Walsh and Sally Seton. She questions the Conservative values through these characters who challenge them in their own ways, but also subscribe to them in many ways themselves, such as Sally settling down with a fairly wealthy man and having five of his children. There seems to be a search for political alternatives and yet a satisfaction with the calm after the first world war.

The country in opposition to city life make us think about authenticity and superficiality, as the natural environment largely seems to bring out more sincere dimensions of the protagonists' character, such as in Sally and Richard who seem to be their authentic selves in Burton. The city appears to force the protagonists to assume an artificiality in order to survive and meet social expectations.

Woolf explores the notion of what it means to be alive or living, for often Clarissa seems to be living a somewhat void life, filled with occasional superficial, orchestrated parties. This existential question is not only linked to the consciousness but also to the soul, and thus the sound of religion is in the background and even comes to the foreground through the character of Ms Kilman, who is hardly described favourably in terms of her character and her attachment to the church. The novel also brings up notions of atheism, as it is a period of questioning and criticism of faith and values and not believing is increasingly common.

The importance of science is often referred to in an ironic tone. This is interesting because as doubts increased in Britain in relation to faith, there was a rise in confidence directed towards science and technology. Science almost became the new religion, the new way of understanding the world.

The discussion concerning education and careers for women in society indicates a turning point in history. The role of women is explored by comparing Sally and Clarissa's aspirations, as well as those of Ms Kilman, to the more promising future of Elizabeth, Clarissa's daughter. While the former three had many dreams, they were not necessarily socially acceptable and were more likely to be practically unfeasible. Ms Kilman insists that this is no longer the case for Elizabeth and she can afford to spread out her wings and explore and dream further, and even realise her dreams. There is quite clearly a strong sense of disappointment in the novel, where the reader hopes for a different type of life for Sally Seton to that which she eventually has. While we accept the matter as fair, it feels as if there has been a lot of potential stifled under the female role of wife and mother.

In terms of style and form, Woolf doesn't divide this novel into chapters, rather it is one long piece, a piece that develops its own fluidity and is thoroughly intertwined. The reader will switch from the thoughts of one character to another quite rapidly and Woolf does this in an almost seamless fashion where we can simply "hear" what people are thinking. She uses both free indirect speech and stream of consciousness, which contribute to her style of capturing the mind as well as forming the fluidity of time. Woolf attempts to capture an authentic experience of the human mind by conveying repeated thoughts as well as the memories these may evoke or otherwise unrelated (if that is possible) thoughts of the past combined with various criticisms and judgements of other people and the self. This impressively conveys the subjectivity of judgement and understanding because oftentimes there are scenes in which we will read the thoughts of more than one character, with differing experiences and perspectives.

To bring this rather long post to a close, I would just like to add that Virginia Woolf's experimental style is initially quite strange for readers seeking a certain plot and series of events. However, once we understand that Woolf isn't exploring events but rather experiences of consciousness, we can appreciate her style much more and thus delve into the minds of her characters and of ourselves. The themes are of course relevant in as much as they constitute the material for our human experiences and build our identities but how we engage with these external factors is fascinating in itself.

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916)

I've finally been pushed to read some Joyce as it's in my academic curriculum this semester. I've always hesitated reading his work because a teacher once told me how most people just never finish Ulysses because it's such a difficult read, and so I always looked at James Joyce as "that Irish author that's difficult to read" and I probably shouldn't touch his work. I've read The Dead to complement my reading of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (A Portrait) and to give me a broader exposure to Joyce's style and work. I just finished A Portrait today and thought I'd share some initial thoughts and feelings and speak a bit more on the thematic elements but no doubt touch upon the stylistic approach.

The novel is a story about a young boy, Stephen, who is sent to a Catholic boarding school, documenting his journey into maturity and development into a young man. I believe that the story was based on Joyce's own childhood, yet to what degree he digresses from authentic events, I'm not quite sure. I found the story in itself fascinating, following Stephen's journey of adolescence with elements from his family life, relationship with his peers, spirituality and his academic interests. I was particularly touched by a scene at the beginning of the novel where Stephen was still a young boy getting used to the schooling system,to the extent that it moved me to tears. Joyce captures the innocence of a child so well, and his bewilderment at the changes around him as well as the the conflicts of the adults around him.

In terms of spirituality, we see that Stephen is gradually disillusioned by the Church and while he doesn't necessarily go as far as to attack the Church, he recognises that there are many elements that don't sit well with him and that he ultimately cannot identify with them. The role of confession in the Catholic church is significant, as it is a ritual that is not performed in all dominations nor in many major religions. The insight and emphasis given to this rite is valuable in that it gives outsiders a glimpse into that world but more importantly it plays a part in Stephen's spiritual battle and his view of the clergy. It creates a mysterious air of what is hidden and what is exposed in confession but also in the human and it underlines how not everything is always what it seems in terms of human character and expectations.

The style of the novel changes throughout in order to reflect the protagonist's own development and maturity, with the language and form becoming more complex. The literary development also reflects Stephen's academic progress and his broader reading and intellectual ventures. Arguably, Joyce uses more complex language as Stephen is gradually liberated from the social constraints set upon him and develops his independence and own thoughts. While this is quite a clever instrument, it presents the reader with a problem of having to readjust him or herself to then follow the novel in its new form. It's almost as if the style and narrative voice will change once you've just got used to the one you're reading. Joyce, therefore, brings up important cultural and social issues but adapting to his way of introducing characters and the layout of dialogue, for example, takes a certain degree of attention that, in more conventional forms, would come more naturally and easily. Also, it is often difficult to know where the story has come to and from what perspective we're reading, as Joyce tends to skip ahead by a year or so quite freely, without much warning and the scattered indications are what force us to recalculate where we've come, only to be sure much later on in the chapter where we finally receive some sort of confirmation.

To sum up some of my thoughts, I felt this wasn't a difficult book to read for its plot but rather it kept presenting me with the challenge of working out what was happening, where had Stephen come in his life and how much time had passed and what had happened in the meantime. The style forces the reader to participate a bit more in the text in order to understand it better and follow it and this is both refreshing and sometimes demanding. I generally found it a fairly pleasant novel to read, giving me something a little different and quite a lot of variety without seeming unending.

Lasting Prayers of the Quran & the Prophet Muhammad

I was sat at the back of my Dad's car, with a few of his books sprawled about next to me as per usual and naturally I just picked one up to flick through. He turned to me from the driver's seat (we hadn't set off yet) and told me to take it back home with me. I complied.

I began reading Lasting Prayers of the Quran & the Prophet Muhammad in Ramadan alongside another book as a "religious, Ramadan read". I knew I wanted to read a book when I wasn't reading Quran but wasting precious Ramadan minutes on a novel felt like a bad idea, and so I chose this as one of my main books. Unfortunately I stopped reading the book as Ramadan ended, and just completed it a few days ago.

Dr. Hammad surprised me with this fresh approach to an Islamic text. His work is clear, concise and easy to read without being patronising. This is not a text that is trying to convert but rather it explains a fundamental tenet of Islam. It explains the value of making du'a (supplicating) and its place in history, through Quranic examples, and in the life of the final Prophet (pbuh). Hammad describes the strength of prayer and how it is a vital core for the believer. This is while he gives brief yet precise insights into Islamic spirituality and belief. There is no shortage of examples of prayers, all in English, and the layout felt rather fun, despite the book itself feeling and appearing rather grand. Hammad shares small hadith or Quranic verses in the margins of the text, as extra gems to adorn your reading, however this sometimes diverts from the main text.

Each chapter of the book is well researched and while I have a few favourite ones I especially appreciated the chapter on 'Women of Prayer'. Despite the fact that prayer is gender neutral and the preceding chapters were equally applicable and relevant to me, the chapter on women underlines this as well as highlights some virtuous women in our history that also have a strong heart of prayer. Their valuable stories were not ignored and their steadfastness is what inspires both men and women alike.

A quick word on the physical format of the book because I feel it deserves a little mention. It is a hardback book with a deep purple fabric/ cloth cover with a gold and purple dust jacket. The main text is 287 pages while further notes, appendices and the bibliography take the total page count to 357. What I secretly enjoyed about this book, along with the actual content of course, were the thick, "lush", acid-free pages. This was a particular pleasure while reading because even after reading a short section it feels as if you've made great progress from where you left off (thanks to the ribbon bookmark) as the pages are thick and thus give you a visual illusion of having read a lot; I found this is really encouraging.

I learnt a few new things from reading the book and was reminded of many others but most importantly it inspired me to renew my intention and my attachment to prayer (or supplication). Often we are distracted, or distract ourselves, with all sorts of activities or forms of technology seeking some sort of fulfilment, which ultimately results in void. However taking those same short moments to turn to God, meditate and call out to Him may well be what we're missing or neglecting. I found the text to be refreshing and despite its depth and seriousness, a light read, meaning that I felt lighter and happier after each interaction with the text. I would recommend everyone interested in faith to read this book, whether you come from an Islamic background or not, whether you are Muslim or not, whether you're researching Islam or not. As long as you're interested in faith and spirituality, and would appreciate an insight into the Islamic world, this book is perfect. I know that I ought to re-read this book or even just certain chapters regularly to renew my faith and keep me inspired.


Book details:
Lasting Prayers of the Quran & the Prophet Muhammad, Dr. Ahmad Zaki Hammad, ISBN: 0-9650746-1-7

The Brothers Karamazov (1880)

I downloaded The Brothers Karamazov onto my Kindle because my sister recommended it since I had started reading some Russian literature. I didn't quite realise how renowned it was until I was well into it and various people seemed impressed I was reading an 'epic' novel. That naturally made me take it a little more seriously so that I could give a decent opinion on the text, especially since I know there will be immense works (articles, essays and journals) on it already. 

Dostoyevsky covers so many important themes in the novel with such tact and eloquence that it is a novel that genuinely and gently opens one to debate and reflection. If we look first at the theme of 'religion' in its broadest sense, we'll see how Dostoyevsky explores the role of the Russian Orthodox Church, the monastery, monks and the dynamics within the Church of newly introduced innovations. We see a community that is complex, searching and human, with references to corruption and virtue alike, rivalry and friendship, selfishness and selflessness. With the influences of European Enlightenment and theories questioning the existence of God, the Church is put in opposition to a secular belief system. Father Zossima is a character who embodies an intermediary between these worlds, since his being elected an elder is already an innovation from the orthodox Church and he doesn't quite dwell on the physical nature of Hell, contrary to essential Christian beliefs. He is also accused of not being wary enough of the devils, the spiritual demons, perhaps showing a lesser emphasis on the 'scary side' of spirituality, making him more likeable in the eyes of some, and discrediting him in the eyes of others. Dostoyevsky presents atheism and secularism to us in a fashion that doesn't offend, and doesn't attack; it doesn't completely negate the need or role of religion or spirituality but it attempts to make sense of the world and the human condition, human inclinations (base and uplifted) and tries to perceive the world differently. I'd say it was a rather agnostic novel, an honest criticism of the weaknesses in society, and encourages readers to take part in the discourse and examine themselves and their own relationship to the faith or lack of faith they adhere to.

In terms of women, Dostoyevsky portrays them in a rather peculiar fashion. There is no doubt about there being an enormous amount to be said and analysed of the women alone in this novel, since they appear to be so eccentric and in many ways stereotypical but hardly relatable. The only vaguely 'normal' women in the novel seem to be Marfa Ignatyevna, who has to submissively obey her husband Grigory despite her superior intelligence and Ilusha's sister, Varvara, who goes to university and is mentioned quite in passing. Besides these two peripheral ladies, the feminine image is one of hysterics, meddling, spite, and anger with some occasional submission. There is a sense of the women being 'out of control', even of themselves, as their reactions and motives are constantly fluctuating. They are the oxymoron of being somewhat calculating and impulsive at once. Alongside the characterisation, there is a general trend of misogyny from the beginning, which is not necessarily portrayed in a positive light, but is rather quite blatant and matter of fact. The beating of women is mentioned as a cultural norm, though Fyodor Pavolvich also receives some heavy-handed smacks from his first wife. Dostoyevsky does talk about the emancipation of women a few times in the novel, which it would be interesting to read more about, as there is obviously a link between the political powers and rights of women and the characterisation of the ladies in the novel. Generally, however I feel these women are not supposed to be trusted. 

Social class is another main component of the novel, where the core protagonists come from a wealthy (or at least upper class) background. Yet, Dimitri finds himself begging for money and has a reputation of squandering away his wealth recklessly. There is consistently a distinction between the poverty of the rich and that of the peasants for those with status maintain power over those without. Madame Hohlakov and Katerina Ivanovna financially aid the downtrodden Snegiryov family which allows them small comforts and eases their difficulties significantly. These gestures are described both as overtly and detailed to describe the dynamic between the ease of giving for the rich and the desire to accept yet the sense of dignity and self-respect of the lower class which creates a hindrance. Another time the gesture is described as a rather natural act of generosity and care, something that shows the relationship that ought to exist between those who have means, and those who have fewer means. Grushenka also regularly donates money to help those in need, from her cousin to the Poles, despite having been described as stingy and miserly. Father Zossima notes the piety and faith in the hearts of the peasants, underlining the importance they play in the future of the nation and the importance of instilling Christian values in their hearts, for they are intelligent, though simple and ought to be welcomed into the fold of faith and given an education concerning essential Christian values, albeit through stories. Even the young boy Nikolay Krassotkin is aware of intelligent peasants and tries to identify them and engage with them. The end of serfdom is noted as a remarkable turning point in Russian history and this transition has various effects on the social hierarchy, despite it being difficult for some peasants to abandon their roles, such as Grigory, and of course an inconvenience for the aristocracy. Dostoyevsky addresses the issues of social prejudice and attempts to give greater credit to and 'humanise' the peasant experience.  

The question of justice and morality is eventually tied in with the criminal justice system. While the concept of no God and thus no divine laws or sense of morality makes everything lawful we see that this leads to rather disastrous consequences, or at least has the potential to, as 'everything is relative' and so it leads to chaos. With the absence of absolute truth and absolute laws alongside relative laws, for life and humans come with many nuances, begins the search for another balance, another understanding and another way to make sense of the world. Notions of guilt and innocence and punishment, reformation and salvation are all put into question, as Dostoyevsky explores the search for a new social system to liberate people from Christian laws but which nonetheless maintain order. 

The use of psychology in the court case criticises the developing (pseudo)science in a fashion that displays its strengths and as well as its weaknesses. Many aspects of psychology may be considered subjective or lacking enough research behind them to amount to large generalisations. Ultimately both edges of the "sword" turn out to be fascinating and revealing. The insight is convincing though dangerous if used to base the entire case upon. 

I found that The Brothers Karamazov was not as dark and grim as, for example, Crime and Punishment; there is more of a balance of light and dark, hope and despair. We are currently living in a period that is experiencing the consequences of the ideas explored in this novel. In many ways the fact that many have accepted worldview that everything is lawful, while keeping up appearances of being law-abiding, we find ourselves living in a time of constant rebellion and much destruction. Many questions raised in the novel haven't necessarily been resolved and so we find ourselves identifying with the issues, which are so gently and delicately explored, as opposed to the aggressive and somewhat militant approaches of our contemporary age.  

A Tale of Two Cities (1859)

This afternoon I realised that despite having read A Tale of Two Cities in July, I hadn't posted about it. I'll share a few of my thoughts from what I scribbled down and what I remember because it does feel like such a long time ago.

This is one of Dickens' shorter works, which is one of the reasons I chose to read it; I wanted to add another Dickens novel to my rather short "read" list and the quicker, the better. The famous introduction makes for a rather vague beginning but a chapter or two later we are taken into a more "story-like" narrative. No doubt the oppositions in the introduction are continued through into the novel which generate many themes and features in the novel, some of which I'll explain in more detail individually.

There is no shortage of twins and look-alikes in the novel, which often construct oppositions in character, create a good-versus-evil dichotomy or simply to show 'what could have been' if the circumstances of one character had been different. A few examples include Carton resembling Darnay, Madame Defarge and Miss Pross who are not identical but rather put in opposition to each other, so that Mme Defarge eventually 'meets her match' and Lucie who gives birth to 'Little Lucie', while she is already the souvenir of her own mother, having inherited her blonde hair. The latter example and that of Cruncher (Jerry), whose son is his smaller and younger duplicate, remind us how similar people continue to exist through generations- being so exposed to certain traits and then the part of inheritance, it's no surprise. We also have the two Marquis, the aristocratic twin brothers who are both evil.

While one may argue that many of Dickens' protagonists are too simplified, being only good or only evil, this isn't necessarily wholly a bad thing because he successfully uses these characters to personify extreme vices or extreme virtues and these are only overlapped sparingly in a character. There is a clear distinction of what is good and bad in a person (even if it does sometimes feel somewhat too idealistic and narrow in its scope). Dickens details how the two Marquis are vile and how the aristocracy is corrupt and shallow. Also, Mme Defarge, though not of the upper classes, is calculating and sly. These evil characters are put in direct opposition to another host of characters, such as Lucie, who is the ultimate version of a perfect woman, beautiful, delicate, well-educated, never imposing and is able to react to each situation in the most perfect fashion. Mr Lorry is someone who is perfectly helpful at all times, despite his age; he is experienced, honest and simply wants to do his job quietly and keep the peace. Dr. Manette is consistently respected and respectable, being a character of dignity, with whom the reader sympathises. Any characters with more duality eventually lean closer to either vice or virtue based on their relationship with the nobler characters.

The opposition of youth and old age does not only come through the protagonists' descendants but also through Tellson's Bank, with the London branch being deeply rooted in tradition and being especially aged, dark and closed. In Paris, however, the Bank is youthful, fresh, artistic and open (not during the riots of course). In the end these oppositions come to show us the fluidity between the two, of good and evil, youth and age, justice and injustice. Despite the constant divisions we are exposed to the risks and the difficulties in having a worldview that is too black and white, that doesn't accept nuances, individuals and details.

I personally found this novel had an interesting and captivating engagement with the French Revolution. While it is something I have studied at university and it has cropped up several times in my life in passing, it never marked me in the same way Dickens managed to get me to think about it. He brought out the human side, the small details as well as the bigger picture, the values and the struggles. It is, of course, orchestrated with characters that do sometimes take the reality out of it, but nonetheless I found myself caring and being disgusted, feeling worried, relieved and even crying in the end. There was a constant desire for a happy ending and Dickens managed to fill my heart with enough hope and anxiety to make the ending particularly touching. I'm definitely glad I read this one as it felt so relevant, was equally enjoyable.